10 August 2026, Volume 18 Issue 8

    

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Key Technologies for Precision Forming of High-end Energy and Aerospace Equipment Components
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  Effect of Surface Laser Cleaning on Microstructure and Properties of Q355ME Carbon Steel

  LI Lin, YANG Fan, CHEN Yuqiang, ZHI Qian, LIN Lin, HE Zhengmao, YUAN Hao, LU Dingding

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.001

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  The work aims to investigate the effects of surface cleaning processes on the in-service performance of Q355ME carbon steel, thereby providing a theoretical basis for the recycling and process optimization of steel used in construction machinery. Through mechanical testing, corrosion experiments, and microstructural characterization, this study systematically compared the effects of non-contact laser cleaning (LC) and conventional mechanical grinding (MG) on the surface morphology, tensile and bending properties, cyclic fatigue response, and corrosion resistance of this carbon steel. Microstructurally, LC treatment caused no mechanical damage and maintained continuous ferrite grain boundaries; MG treatment induced dense micro-spalling and pitting at grain and phase boundaries. In terms of mechanical properties, LC specimens achieved an elongation at fracture of 29.5% due to the preservation of grain boundary continuity, approximately 10.7% higher than the MG process; MG specimens reached a bending strength of 728.0 MPa due to the surface work hardening effect, approximately 7.3% higher than the LC process. Regarding fatigue performance, localized surface defects in the LC treatment caused stress concentration, reducing the fatigue limit to 300 MPa; in contrast, the MG treatment, due to its low surface roughness and residual compressive stress, suppressed crack initiation, resulting in a fatigue limit of 350 MPa. In terms of corrosion resistance, the LC treatment effectively prevented the localized “occluded cell” effect, shifting the self-corrosion potential to -0.68 V, which was superior to the -0.76 V observed for the MG treatment. In conclusion, the LC process, with its non-thermal damage characteristics, effectively maintains the integrity of the matrix microstructure, imparting superior tensile ductility and environmental corrosion resistance to Q355ME carbon steel; the MG process, through surface work hardening and residual compressive stress control, enhances bending strength and fatigue life.
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  Research Progress on the Process, Microstructure, and Properties of Additively Manufactured Copper-based Materials

  NIU Jinghan, DENG Hailiang, WANG Pei, GUO Liping, LIANG Shijie, CAI Jiawei, FU Zhiqiang, XU Jifu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 14-33. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.002

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  Copper-based materials are widely used in aerospace, transportation, electronics, medical, and energy power fields due to their excellent electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, ductility, corrosion resistance, antibacterial properties, and toughness. With the increasing demand for lightweight, complexity, and integrated structural and functional components, traditional casting, forging, and cutting processes are gradually being limited in areas such as forming complex structures, material utilization, and manufacturing cycles. Additive manufacturing (AM) technology can achieve layer-by-layer forming of copper-based components based on 3D models, providing new approaches for manufacturing complex internal cavities, conformal cooling channels, and functionally gradient components. The work aims to review the research progress in additive manufacturing of copper-based materials, with a focus on the principles and characteristics of laser powder bed fusion, electron beam powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, powder extrusion, and binder jetting, as well as typical defects arising during fabrication, including pores, cracks, lack of fusion, and microstructural inhomogeneity. Strategies for improving the forming quality and material properties, including process optimization, powder modification, alloying design, heat treatment, and hot isostatic pressing, are summarized. Finally, the future development directions of additive manufacturing of copper-based materials in areas such as material system expansion, online monitoring, standardization evaluation, and industrial application are discussed, aiming to provide a reference for high-quality manufacturing of integrated copper-based components with integrated structural functions.
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  Research Progress in Preparation and Service Performance of Babbitt Alloy Surface Coating

  SHI Jianjun, WANG Yueying, CHANG Jiashuo, LU Yifan, WANG Xingxing, CHEN Xiaojiang, SONG Chenfei, WANG Shuai, YUAN Zhipeng, HE Peng

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 34-52. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.003

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  Babbitt alloy possesses excellent conformability, embeddability, anti-seizure behavior, and anti-friction performance, and has long been served as an indispensable surface-coating material for large sliding bearings. With the continuous development of high-end equipment such as steam turbines, hydraulic turbines and compressors toward high load, high speed, long service life, and frequent start-stop operating conditions, Babbitt alloy coatings cast in conventional ways are increasingly prone to problems such as microstructural coarsening, compositional segregation, insufficient interfacial bonding, poor high- temperature stability, and fatigue spalling. Based on recent research progresses in Babbitt alloy surface coatings, this paper provides a systematic review from preparation processes, microstructural evolution and interfacial behavior, service performance and its influencing factors, as well as engineering applications, failure analysis, and remanufacturing. The review focuses on the effects of liquid-solid composite casting, cold metal transfer/metal inert gas arc welding low-heat-input welded coating fabrication, laser cladding/remelting, thermal spraying, and electrodeposition on the distribution of the α-Sn soft matrix, SnSb and Cu₆Sn₅ hard phases, interfacial diffusion coatings, and defect control. The mechanisms by which intercoating design, elemental/particle composite strengthening, and surface functionalization improve load-bearing capacity, anti-friction and wear resistance, and anti-spalling performance are summarized. In addition, typical failure modes under the coupled effects of lubrication, temperature, and fatigue are discussed, together with the development trends of repair and remanufacturing technologies for large bearing bushes. In the future, research on Babbitt alloy surface coating materials should focus on low-heat-input and high-density fabrication, coordinated regulation of microstructure and interface, composite strengthening and surface functionalization design, near-service-condition performance evaluation, and digital remanufacturing.
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  Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Titanium and Copper Dissimilar Joints Fabricated by Ultrasonic Spot Welding

  SHI Chenxu, WANG Shiqing, QIANG Wei, LI Changlin, ZHANG Qiang

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 53-62. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.004

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  The work aims to systematically investigate the mechanism of ultrasonic spot welding process parameters and Ag foil interlayer on inhibiting the formation of brittle phases, to provide a reliable theoretical basis and feasible engineering application scheme for the high-quality and high-efficiency joining of Ti/Cu dissimilar metals. Ultrasonic spot welding technology was adopted to systematically explore the effect law of welding pressure, vibration amplitude and Ag foil interlayer thickness on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints, and reveal the interfacial regulation mechanism of the Ag foil interlayer. The Ag foil interlayer could effectively block the direct contact between Ti and Cu atoms, inhibit the formation of brittle phases such as TiCu and Ti₂Cu, and form a gradient transition layer of Ag-Cu infinite solid solution and Ag-Ti limited solid solution at the interface. The hardness distribution of the joint presented an asymmetric characteristic with a gradient increase from the copper side to the titanium side. The shear strength of the joint increased with the increase of each welding process parameter. Under the optimized process parameters of welding pressure 0.4 MPa, vibration amplitude 40 μm and 100 μm Ag foil interlayer, the maximum shear strength of the joint reached 138.59 MPa, which was 29.8% higher than that of the joint with 50 μm Ag foil interlayer. Ultrasonic spot welding can realize high-quality solid-state joining of TC4 titanium alloy and H62 brass alloy. The Ag foil interlayer can effectively regulate the interfacial microstructure and improve the joint performance, which provides support for the engineering application of this joining system.
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  Mechanical Properties of Gradient Inlaid Lattice Structures Fabricated by SLM

  JIANG Lihong, YU Qiangqiang, ZHAO Mingjie, LIU Zheng, WEN Dongxu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 63-73. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.005

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  The work aims to clarify the mechanical properties, deformation behavior, and energy absorption characteristics of FCC/BCC functionally gradient inlaid lattice structures under varying gradient directions and density distributions, and to identify the optimal configuration featuring low initial peak force, high crushing force efficiency, and high specific energy absorption, thereby providing design strategies and quantitative benchmarks for lightweight energy-absorbing components in high-end manufacturing. Six types of gradient inlaid lattice structures, with different gradient directions and density distributions (based on inlaid combinations of FCC and BCC unit cells), were constructed through parametric design. Quasi-static compression tests were then conducted to systematically characterize their mechanical responses, failure processes, and key energy absorption indicators, namely, initial peak force (IPF), crushing force efficiency (CFE), and specific energy absorption (SEA). All gradient structures exhibited a consistent failure mechanism: fracture initiated from the sparsest and weakest region and subsequently propagated steadily toward the denser region. Experimental results revealed that, among the six gradient configurations, the “BCC-inlaid-FCC structure” with “a high-density-low-density-high-density distribution” achieved the best overall performance, delivering the lowest IPF of 13.1 MN and the highest CFE of 2.33. The “FCC-inlaid-BCC structure” with “a reverse linear gradient” (density increasing along the loading direction) exhibited the highest SEA of 0.52 kJ/g, approximately 240% higher than that of the worst-performing configuration. The gradient pattern with “a high-density-low-density-high-density distribution” proved to be the most favorable for overall energy absorption performance, among which the FCC-inlaid-BCC combination achieved the best balance between impact mitigation and efficient energy absorption. It is concluded that, by rationally matching the matrix phase, inlaid phase, and density distribution, functionally gradient inlaid lattice structures can effectively guide progressive plastic deformation starting from weak zones, reduce the initial impact peak, and enhance crushing stability. This work provides theoretical foundations and data support for the customized design of lightweight energy absorption components in high-end manufacturing fields, such as automotive crash boxes and aviation buffer structures.
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  Microstructure and Properties of Sn-Zn/Cu Solder Joints with Multi-component Flux

  HAN Ruonan, WAN Kang, ZHANG Liang

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 74-81. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.006

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  The work aims to investigate the effect law and action mechanism of self-developed special Sn-Zn flux, rosin-based flux, water-soluble flux, and ZnCl₂-NH₄Cl flux on the wettability, interfacial microstructure, joint mechanical properties, and high-temperature aging stability of Sn-Zn solder micro-joints, providing a theoretical basis for the performance optimization of Sn-Zn solder and the development of dedicated matching fluxes. The optimal formulation of self-prepared flux, namely LF-8, was screened through orthogonal tests. Based on the wetting balance method, joint mechanical property tests, mechanical performance tests of micro-joints after 150 ℃ high-temperature aging, as well as interfacial and fracture morphology observation, the wetting behavior, mechanical property evolution, and microscopic morphological characteristics of Sn-Zn/Cu soldering systems with different fluxes were comparatively analyzed. When LF-8 flux was applied to Sn-Zn/Cu solder, the maximum wetting force reached 4.67 mN, the minimum wetting time was 0.8 s, and the maximum spreading area was 116.8 mm², which could significantly refine the interfacial microstructure. The maximum shear strength and tensile strength of the solder joints were 39.06 MPa and 25.65 MPa, respectively. Compared with joints prepared with rosin-based, water-soluble and ZnCl₂-NH₄Cl fluxes, the tensile strength increased by 111.11%, 53.96% and 27.49%, and the shear strength increased by 99.69%, 76.18% and 9.26%, with finer and more uniform dimples observed on the joint fracture surface. The maximum shear force and tensile force of micro-joints reached 86.46 N and 26.16 N, which increased by 61.15%, 41.71%, 6.74% and 47.88%, 30.93%, 12.42% respectively compared with the other three control fluxes, and the micro-joints exhibited the slowest attenuation during the aging process, remarkably improving the mechanical properties and service stability of micro-joints. In conclusion, the self-developed LF-8 special flux can effectively improve the wetting and spreading ability of Sn-Zn solder, optimize the interfacial structure, and significantly enhance the mechanical properties and high-temperature aging stability of solder joints, which is suitable for electronic welding applications of Sn-Zn lead-free solder.
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  Aluminum Alloy Grid Rib Cylinder Strong Spinning Forming Process

  XU Hengqiu, GAO Jingbo, HUANG Tao, GUO Yaming, MU Chongli, CHEN Kai

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 82-88. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.007

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  The work aims to reveal the influencing factors of the filling rate of 3 350 mm-level large-diameter aluminum alloy cylinder segments with cross-grid ribs, uncover the flow and filling patterns of billets and their main influencing factors under roller action, and provide a theoretical foundation for future lightweight rocket manufacturing applications. A 2219 aluminum alloy grid rib cylinder was formed using strong spinning, and the effects of the thinning rate, feed ratio, and billet wall thickness on rib filling during forming were analyzed. The study found that increasing the thinning rate enhanced filling height, with maximum rib filling achieved at a 60% thinning rate. However, the rib filling rate declined when the thinning rate exceeded 50%. A feed ratio between 0.6 and 0.8 ensured optimal filling, while excessively low ratios caused diameter expansion and excessively high ratios led to uneven filling, both reducing the filling rate. A billet wall thickness of 15 mm yielded good filling, whereas lower thicknesses may result in localized tearing defects, and thicker walls caused metal to flow forward excessively. In the overall spinning of aluminum alloy cylinder segments, the thinning rate and the feed ratio significantly affect rib filling. Increasing the thinning rate promotes rib filling but, when exceeding 60%, excessive metal flow toward the spinning direction creates gaps in the opposite region, thereby reducing the overall filling rate. Both insufficient diameter expansion at low feed ratios and incomplete billet deformation at high feed ratios due to increased per-rotation advancement lead to uneven rib heights and negatively affect the cross-grid rib filling rate.
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  Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of W/Cu Joints Brazed with CuMn-based Filler Metal

  LU Haotian, LI Shishuo, QU Yuanhao, SHENG Lanbing, ZHANG Xiaohang, SHEN Yu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 89-98. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.008

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  The work aims to address the joining difficulties caused by metallurgical incompatibility and large mismatch in coefficient of thermal expansion between W and Cu by designing and preparing two high-manganese filler metals (Cu-23.5Mn- 9Ni and Cu-23.5Mn-11Co) and systematically investigating the effects of Ni and Co on the microstructure, interfacial reaction behavior and mechanical properties of brazed joints. W/Cu joints were fabricated by vacuum brazing. The microstructure, elemental distribution and shear fracture morphology of the brazed seams were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Room-temperature shear strength of the joints was measured with a universal electronic testing machine to evaluate the mechanical properties under different filler metals and process conditions. Under the brazing condition of 900 ℃ and a holding time of 10 min, both filler metals achieved reliable metallurgical bonding between W and Cu, resulting in dense brazed seams without continuous brittle phases. For the CuMnNi filler, Ni was mainly enriched at the W/filler interface, and the joint exhibited an average shear strength of (163.1±10.2) MPa. For the CuMnCo filler, Co diffused into the W substrate by forming a solid solution, creating a compositionally graded transition layer that enhanced interfacial bonding strength, and the joint achieved an average shear strength of (182.6±9.6) MPa. The shear fractures of both joints exhibited a mixed ductile-brittle failure mode, with morphologies comprising dimples, tearing ridges and local cleavage facets. The solid-solution diffusion of Co into the W substrate significantly enhances the interfacial bonding strength of the CuMnCo brazed joint, rendering its comprehensive mechanical performance superior to that of the CuMnNi counterpart. This work provides a technical reference for future research and applications of W/Cu brazing.
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  Analysis of Gas Metal Arc Welding Process and Microstructure Properties of EH40 Steel

  XU Lindong, WU Lei, SUN Jianyu, WU Pengbo, XIN Guosong, CHEN Shaoxin, FANG Naiwen

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 99-108. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.009

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  The work aims to realize the reasonable matching of strength and toughness of EH40 steel welded joints, analyze the evolution law of joint microstructure and its internal relationship with mechanical properties, and ensure the long-term safe and stable service of EH40 steel welded structure. In this paper, ER550 flux-cored wire was used to weld EH40 steel by gas metal arc welding. The effect of core process parameters such as welding current and voltage on weld formation was systematically studied, and the EH40 steel plate was welded after further optimizing the welding process parameters. The morphology, grain size, grain boundary and dimple morphology of each region of the joint were analyzed by means of metallographic microscope, scanning electron microscope and electron backscatter diffraction. With medium and low voltage of 26.5 V and 230 A welding current, the weld zone was composed of acicular ferrite+a small amount of proeutectoid ferrite+M-A island (MA). The overheated zone was composed of coarse lath bainite+retained austenite grain+acicular ferrite. The normalized zone was composed of ferrite (AF)+fine granular bainite (B). The microstructure of incomplete normalized zone was composed of fine equiaxed ferrite (PF). The average tensile strength of the welded joint was 598 MPa, the elongation after welding was 27%, and the fracture position was the base metal. Under the condition of -30 ℃, the impact absorption energy of the weld zone was 65 J, the impact absorption energy of the fusion zone was 97 J, and the impact absorption energy of the heat affected zone was 133 J. Through reasonable process optimization, the effective matching of strength and toughness of EH40 steel welded joints can be realized, which provides a theoretical basis and engineering reference for efficient and high-quality welding of EH40 steel.
Light Alloy Forming
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  Effect of High Temperature Deformation on Microstructure and Crystallographic Orientation of a New High Strength-toughness Titanium Alloy

  TAO Chang'an, ZHU Liwei, WANG Xinnan, SHANG Guoqiang, LI Mingbing, ZHU Zhishou

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 109-117. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.010

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  The work aims to investigate the effect of high temperature deformation parameters on microstructure morphology and crystallographic orientation, and master the characteristics of hot deformation and the regularity of crystallographic orientation evolution of a new high strength-toughness Ti-Al-Mo-Cr-V-Zr titanium alloy. By thermal simulation compression and corresponding characterization experiments, the high temperature rheological characteristic were studied. The evolution laws during thermal compression deformation were discussed by research for microstructure morphology and crystallographic orientation with SEM, EBSD characterization methods. The results indicated that the rheological stress increased with the decreasing temperature and the increasing strain rate. At the initial stage of thermal deformation, the rheological stress rapidly rose to the peak value and then gradually decreased, entering the steady-state flow stage. The high-temperature deformation conditions had a remarkable influence on the microstructure morphology and crystallographic orientation. The strain rate affected the deformation temperature rise and the uniformity of deformation. Under a high strain rate, the deformation temperature rise was severe and the non-uniformity of deformation intensified, leading to a reduction in the content of the primary α phase and an increase in its elongation. In conclusion, the deformation temperature mainly affects the content of the primary α phase. Meanwhile, at higher temperatures, the deformation of the α phase is more facile and the elongation feature is more pronounced. Additionally, at lower temperatures, the orientation dispersion of the α phase and β phase is greater and the anisotropy is weaker; at higher temperatures, the orientation concentration of the α phase and β phase is larger and the anisotropy is more severe.
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  Research Progress on Rolling Process of Precision Resistance Alloy Ultra-thin Strip

  ZHANG Yuyang, CHENG Zhendong, ZHOU Zexi, SONG Meng, JI Jiang, LU Rihuan, HUANG Huagui

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 118-134. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.011

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  The precision resistance alloy ultra-thin strip is the core substrate of the resistance element in the high-end equipment system. Its thickness accuracy, shape and surface quality are the key indicators determining the resistance stability and temperature characteristics, and directly affect the long-term reliability of the system. With the continuous improvement of system integration and performance requirements, higher requirements are placed on the dimensional accuracy and resistance stability of ultra-thin strips. At present, the rolling technology has become the core technical means of industrial preparation due to its continuous and efficient preparation characteristics, which has significant advantages in the large-scale production of ultra-thin strips. In this paper, the preparation process of precision resistance alloy ultra-thin strips is reviewed, and the complete process chain with rolling process as the core is discussed. Combined with the processing adaptability of different alloy systems, the current research status is analyzed. The research shows that the reduction system, tension control, roll shape design, lubrication conditions and heat treatment process in the precision rolling process are the key factors affecting the quality of the ultra-thin strip, which are directly related to the thickness consistency, shape stability and surface quality of the ultra-thin strip. In recent years, with the continuous optimization of the rolling process, the quality of ultra-thin strips has been significantly improved, especially in thickness control and shape stability. In addition, by regulating the heat treatment process, the microstructure can be further optimized and the stress distribution can be improved, thereby increasing the resistance and improving the resistance temperature characteristics. However, the surface defect control and microstructure uniformity control of ultra-thin strips in ultra-thin state are still the key problems restricting the quality of finished products. In the future, with the continuous development of high-stiffness multi-roll system and asynchronous rolling technology, the preparation process of precision resistance alloy ultra-thin strips will develop in the direction of high precision, high stability and intelligence, which can provide a more solid theoretical basis and process guidance for its industrial production.
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  Effect of Differential Treatment on Bending Forming Quality of 6061 Aluminum Alloy Tubes

  ZHU Peng, CHEN Ming, XU Yong, XIE Wenlong, SONG Hongwu, ZHANG Chi, LI Liangyou, LI Lianghong, LI Lei

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 135-144. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.012

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  Addressing the issue that rotary draw bending tends to cause poor forming quality of tube wall thickness and cross-sectional distortion, the work aims to propose a novel differential rotary draw bending method combining property-graded materials and differential lubrication based on conventional CNC rotary draw bending. Property-graded materials were prepared through localized laser heat treatment on the tube's outer side, while differential lubrication was implemented by applying specific lubrication conditions to different forming dies. A finite element model for bending 6061 aluminum alloy tubes was established to investigate the effect of these differentiated conditions on wall thickness and cross-sectional distortion. In the study of property-graded materials, varying laser power enabled localized heat treatment at different temperatures, altering the microstructure and properties of the outer tube material. Optimal forming quality was achieved at a laser heat treatment temperature of 450 ℃, which enhanced the deformation resistance of the outer side material. In the differential lubrication study, a friction coefficient of 0.15 was identified as optimal. Exceeding this value caused wrinkling on the inner side, while a lower value exacerbated wall thinning on the outer side. With the above-mentioned two sets of parameters, two differential treatment methods are combined with the property-graded materials and differential lubrication to obtain 6061 aluminum alloy tubes with a bending angle of 90°. The outer wall thinning ratio is 11.3%, the inner wall thickening ratio is 10.3%, and the cross-sectional distortion ratio is 3.6%. The proposed differentiated rotary draw bending method provides a new and viable reference for achieving reliable integral forming of bent tubes.
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  Current Research Progress on the Purification of Aluminum Alloy Melts

  HUANG Tao, TANG Tao, ZHENG Kaihong, ZUO Zhongqiang, WANG Hongzhen, PENG Jian

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 145-156. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.013

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  Aluminum alloy ingots are susceptible to defects such as porosity and non-metallic inclusions during melting and casting because of inadequate melt cleanliness, which severely degrades the mechanical properties, fatigue life, and service reliability of aluminum alloy components. With the rapid development of high-performance aluminum alloys and increasingly stringent service requirements, the development of efficient melt purification technologies for producing high-quality ingots has become a critical challenge in aluminum melting and casting. The work aims to systematically review recent research progress and emerging trends in aluminum alloy melt purification technologies. Based on their dominant purification mechanisms, existing melt purification methods can be classified into two fundamental routes: adsorptive and non-adsorptive purification. Adsorptive purification primarily involves bubble flotation, flux refining, and filtration, where external interfaces are introduced to adsorb and remove dissolved hydrogen and non-metallic inclusions from the melt. In contrast, non-adsorptive purification employs external physical fields, such as vacuum, ultrasonic, and electromagnetic fields, to modify the thermodynamic and kinetic conditions of the melt, thereby promoting hydrogen precipitation as well as the aggregation and migration of inclusions. To overcome the limitations of single purification methods in purification efficiency, treatment scale, and process stability, integrated purification technologies based on the synergistic coupling of multiple processes or physical fields have been developed, offering effective routes for deep purification of aluminum alloy melts. Through comparative analysis of the principles, purification performance, and engineering applicability of different technologies, a single purification method can hardly meet the engineering requirements of high efficiency, continuity and stability simultaneously. Future research is expected to focus on intelligent integrated purification systems with multi-process coupling, novel purification media and equipment development, and the deep integration of online monitoring, intelligent control, and digital simulation to meet the stringent cleanliness requirements of high-end aluminum alloys for melt purification.
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  Stress Relief Evaluation Method for Aluminum Alloy Boxes Based on Gaussian and Cumulative Distribution

  LU Hao, ZHU Quanwei, FENG Xiao, GAO Wu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 157-166. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.014

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  In response to the lack of consensus within the industry regarding stress relief heat treatment specifications for 5A06 aluminum alloy skin-frame structures, the work aims to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of various processes including natural aging, heat treatment at different temperatures, and vibration aging in eliminating residual stress, to provide a theoretical basis and experimental support for selecting efficient and reliable stress control processes. Non-destructive ultrasonic stress testing technology was employed to measure stresses in panels subjected to different durations of natural aging, low-temperature heat treatment at 130 ℃, high-temperature heat treatment at 310 ℃, and vibration aging. The mean and standard deviations of the residual stress distribution were analyzed with probabilistic statistical methods. An evaluation methodology integrating Gaussian distribution fitting and the Boltzmann cumulative distribution function was proposed to better distinguish the stress relief effects of different processes. After the 130 ℃ heat treatment, residual stress was significantly reduced with improved distribution homogeneity. In contrast, the 310 ℃ treatment resulted in substantial fluctuation in residual stress, indicating that the stress relief effect was not significant. Stresses stabilized after 14 days of natural aging. Vibration aging demonstrated a certain stress homogenization effect. Metallographic analysis revealed that the 130 ℃ treatment had a lesser impact on microstructural changes compared to the 310 ℃ treatment. This work establishes an evaluation method based on probabilistic statistics and cumulative distribution functions to objectively assess the effectiveness of stress relief processes in complex structures. The 130 ℃ low-temperature heat treatment is suitable for stress regulation in this alloy frame structure, whereas the 310 ℃ high-temperature heat treatment is not recommended. The findings provide important theoretical and practical guidance for process optimization in the manufacturing of 5A06 aluminum alloy welded structures.
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  Effect of Heat Treatment Process on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 7075 Aluminum Alloy for Automobiles

  GENG Yan

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 167-175. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.015

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  Owing to the severe segregation in the microstructure and the poor mechanical properties of the as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy, which fail to meet the application requirements of automotive products, the work aims to improve the segregated microstructure and mechanical properties of the alloy through solution and aging treatment, so as to satisfy the application requirements of automotive products. The as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy was adopted as the research object, and both single-stage solution + artificial aging (T6) and two-stage solution+artificial aging (T6) treatments were conducted. Optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to analyze the evolution of the microstructure and phase constituents of the alloy under different heat treatment regimes. An electronic universal testing machine was used to evaluate the room-temperature tensile mechanical properties and to observe the fracture morphology. The effect of the solution and aging treatment regimes on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy was systematically investigated. The as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy was mainly composed of an α-Al matrix, MgZn₂ phase and Al₂CuMg phase, with pronounced segregation. After single-stage solution T6 treatment, the main phases of the alloy were α-Al, MgZn₂ and Al₂CuMg, and the secondary phases precipitated at grain boundary triple junctions with spherical and rod-like morphologies, exhibiting an average diameter of approximately 23 nm. After two-stage solution T6 treatment, only the diffraction peaks of the α-Al and Al₂CuMg phases appeared in the XRD patterns, indicating that the MgZn₂ phase was essentially dissolved into the matrix. The spherical and rod-like secondary phases at grain boundaries and within grains decreased remarkably, while granular phases increased with a tendency to coarsen, and a small amount exhibited a blocky morphology. During aging, the Al₂CuMg phase continuously nucleated and grew by consuming the MgZn₂ phase, leading to an increase in its volume fraction and a growth in the average diameter to approximately 44.5 nm. Mechanical property tests demonstrated that the alloy after two-stage solution T6 treatment achieved an ultimate tensile strength of 647.2 MPa, a yield strength of 605.2 MPa, a fracture toughness of 41.7 MPa·m^1/2 and an elongation of 8.76%. The tensile fracture transformed from intergranular brittle fracture to transgranular ductile fracture, with a large number of dimples distributed on the fracture surface. Compared with the single-stage solution T6 treatment, the two-stage solution T6 treatment can more thoroughly eliminate the segregation of the as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy, promote the dissolution of the MgZn₂ phase, and refine and homogenize the secondary phases, thereby significantly improving the comprehensive mechanical properties of the alloy (ultimate tensile strength of 647.2 MPa, yield strength of 605.2 MPa, elongation of 8.76%, and fracture toughness of 41.7 MPa·m^1/2), and changing the fracture mode from intergranular brittle fracture to transgranular ductile fracture. After the two-stage solution plus artificial aging treatment, the mechanical properties of the as-cast 7075 aluminum alloy can satisfy the application requirements of automotive products, which provides a process basis for the application of this alloy in automotive structural components.
Advanced Joining Technology
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  Optimization of Titanium Alloy Narrow-gap TIG Welding Process Parameters Based on Orthogonal Experiment

  LI Li, MIAO Lulu, YAN Yongcheng

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 176-188. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.016

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  The work aims to address the issues of poor sidewall fusion, high porosity sensitivity, and significant differences in thermal cycles during multi-pass welding in narrow-gap TIG welding of 20 mm thick TC4 titanium alloy medium-thick sheets caused by the narrow groove, by systematically investigating the effects of welding current, welding speed, wire feed speed, and tungsten electrode oscillation speed on the weld formation and mechanical properties of the root and filler layers through a layer-specific optimization strategy, and clarifying the regulation mechanisms and priorities of process parameters for each layer. Multi-pass welding experiments were conducted using a narrow-gap oscillating arc TIG welding system. Orthogonal experiments with four factors and three levels were designed for the root layer and filler layer, respectively. The cross-sectional area, penetration depth, and tensile strength were taken as evaluation indicators. Range analysis and variance analysis were employed to determine the primary and secondary effects and significance of each factor. Combined with metallographic observation, the influence mechanism of heat input on the microstructure evolution in the fusion zone and heat-affected zone was revealed. For the root layer, wire feed speed was the dominant factor affecting the cross-sectional area (R=89.82); welding speed had the most significant effect on tensile strength (R=25.9, P=0.031), and tungsten electrode oscillation speed also showed a significant effect (P=0.028); welding current was the main factor influencing penetration depth (R=1.4). The optimized parameters were welding current of 180 A, welding speed of 120 mm/min, wire feed speed of 0.8 m/min, and oscillation speed of 60 mm/s, corresponding to a heat input of 1 080 J/mm, achieving a tensile strength of 910 MPa. For the filler layer, tungsten electrode oscillation speed had an extremely significant effect on tensile strength (R=38.97, P<0.001), and wire feed speed had a significant effect (P=0.015). The optimized parameters were welding current of 200 A, welding speed of 120 mm/min, wire feed speed of 1.5 m/min, and oscillation speed of 55 mm/s, corresponding to a heat input of 1 300 J/mm, achieving a tensile strength of 908 MPa. Metallographic analysis showed that as the heat input increased from 775 J/mm to 1 178 J/mm, the microstructure of the root layer weld evolved from fine acicular martensite to a mixed α+β structure and then to coarsened Widmanstätten structure, while grains in the heat-affected zone gradually coarsened. The filler layer exhibited a similar evolution trend, but grain coarsening was more pronounced due to different heat dissipation conditions. In conclusion, the layer-specific optimization strategy effectively resolves the problems of poor sidewall fusion and porosity defects, clarifying that the root layer requires a balance between penetration and strength, while for the filler layer, the focus should be put on molten pool stirring and filler metal matching. Heat input is a key factor in microstructure evolution; tensile strength first increases and then decreases with increasing heat input, reaching peak values at approximately 890 J/mm for the root layer and 1 040 J/mm for the filler layer. Within an appropriate heat input range, welded joints with fine microstructure and excellent mechanical properties can be obtained, providing a systematic experimental basis and theoretical support for the process design of multi-pass welding of thick sheets.
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  Effect of Ceramic Shot Peening on Fatigue Properties of Laser Welded Joints of TC4-DT Alloys

  XIONG Zhili, MA Wenyuan, HUA Cheng

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 189-198. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.017

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  The work aims to enhance the fatigue performance of TC4-DT alloy laser welded joints by surface strengthening through ceramic shot peening, clarify the influence of shot peening parameters and fatigue stress levels on the fatigue performance of the joints, and reveal the intrinsic mechanism underlying the improvement of fatigue performance. Two TC4-DT alloy plates were mechanically ground prior to welding. Preliminary laser welding was performed under a pure argon atmosphere, followed by drilling a hole at the center of the weld seam to simulate porosity repair. Subsequent tungsten inert gas welding was conducted to repair the weld seam, yielding a void-free butt joint. Furthermore, the surfaces of the aforementioned welded joints were treated by ceramic shot peening. Residual stress, surface roughness, and hardness of the joints were tested before and after ceramic shot peening. Techniques such as acanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) were employed to characterize the fatigue fracture surfaces and microstructural morphologies of the joints. Results indicated that the fatigue limit reached 300 MPa under the laser welding parameters of 4.7 kW laser power, 20 mm/s welding speed, 200 Hz swing frequency, and 0.8 mm swing amplitude. When ceramic shot peening was performed with a pressure of 0.12 MPa, a flow rate of 1 kg/min, a jet angle of 90°, and a jet distance of (200±30) mm, the fatigue life of the joint was significantly improved. In conclusion, ceramic shot peening can optimize the surface stress state of the welded joint and thicken the surface hardened layer, thereby remarkably improving its fatigue life.
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  Evolution of Rolling Strengthened Structures and Properties for Friction Stir Welded Joints of the Al-Li Alloy

  MA Kang, LIU Xu, CHENG Qi, ZHANG Huijie, ZHANG Ruibo, ZHOU Xiangyu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 199-206. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.018

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  The work aims to investigate the effect law of rolling treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy friction stir welded joints, analyze the evolution mechanism of the microstructure, and elucidate the effect of microstructural evolution on the tensile properties and microhardness of the joints. A specialized rolling tool was used to perform the rolling treatment on the friction stir welded joints of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints before and after rolling treatment were analyzed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and a universal testing machine. Compared with the unrolled joint, the joint subjected to rolling at a speed of 200 mm/min exhibited a reduction in average grain size from 75.78 μm to 61.15 μm, and the maximum axial length of the blocky strengthening phases decreased from 0.98 μm to 0.28 μm, and the number of strengthening phases increased. Meanwhile, the tensile strength of the joints increased from 404 MPa to 442 MPa, and the average microhardness in the stir zone increased from 112.5HV to 121.5HV. However, due to the increased number of grain boundaries and strengthening phases after rolling, the hindrance to dislocation movement was enhanced, resulting in a decrease in the joint's elongation. Rolling treatment can refine the grains and strengthening phases of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy friction stir welded joints and increase the number of strengthening phases, thereby improving the tensile strength and microhardness of the joint, but reducing its elongation at the same time.
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  Numerical Simulation of Multi-layer and Multi-pass Horizontal Welding for Tube Plates in the Shield Machine Cylinder

  LUO Yu, FENG Yan, QI Qi, XIE Xixiang, YUAN Xiao, YANG Ran, WU Zhongyu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 207-217. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.019

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  In response to the problems such as high labor intensity in manual welding, the work aims to study temperature and stress changes of the 22 mm deep K-shaped groove on the S235 carbon structural steel of the tube plate of the shield machine cylinder. With the ABAQUS finite element software, a multi-layer and multi-pass analysis model for the tube plate of the shield machine cylinder was established. A double ellipsoid heat source model was selected to study the distribution laws of the temperature field and stress field of the K-type groove welding of S235 carbon structural steel. The reliability of the numerical simulation was verified through welding experiments. After the welding heat source was applied, it moved uniformly along each weld seam and spread towards the surrounding area. The temperature was symmetrically distributed with the weld seam as the axis of symmetry. By comparing the simulated weld temperature cloud diagram with the macroscopic weld microstructure cross-section diagram observed during the experiment, the accuracy of the selected heat source model and material parameters in the numerical simulation was verified. By comparing the peak values of the residual stress in all directions, it could be seen that the maximum tensile stress in the thickness direction was 238.4 MPa, the maximum transverse tensile stress was 363.7 MPa, and the maximum longitudinal tensile stress was 338.4 MPa. This indicated that the residual welding stress was mainly dominated by transverse stress and longitudinal stress, and the transverse tensile stress in the bevel area facing away from the first weld seam had the highest value and posed a cracking risk. The temperature field and stress field changes during the multi-layer and multi-pass horizontal welding process of S235 carbon structural steel are analyzed and studied through finite element software. This provides a theoretical basis for optimizing the welding process and parameters.
Additive Manufacturing
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  Precipitation Behavior of Ordered B2/ω_o Phases in Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing Process of High-Nb TiAl Alloys

  WANG Xianghui, XIANG Henggao, ZHENG Gong, CHANG Chen, XIONG Anhui, CHEN Yang

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 218-228. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.020

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  The work aims to fabricate high-niobium TiAl alloy specimens with electron beam additive manufacturing (EBAM) technology to investigate the microstructure and phase distribution of the formed specimens under different energy density parameters and analyze the phase transformation pathways and underlying mechanisms during the EBAM process, providing theoretical support and experimental basis for optimizing the EBAM process of high-niobium TiAl alloys and improving their mechanical properties. Characterization techniques including SEM, EBSD, TKD, and TEM were utilized for in-depth analyses of microstructure, precipitate morphology, and crystallographic orientation, followed by a systematic investigation of the precipitation behavior, evolution, and formation mechanism of ordered B2 phase and ω_o phase during the EBAM of high-niobium TiAl alloys. A high energy density input during the EBAM process led to significant Al volatilization (up to 6.50 wt.%) in the high-niobium TiAl alloy and destabilized the initial coarse lamellar structure, resulting in not only lamellar degradation but also the process of parallel decomposition and precipitation of ordered B2/ω_o phases. Eventually, an α2/γ/(B2/ω_o) mixed structure coexisting with α₂ phase, γ phase, and B2/ω_o phase formed inside the specimen, wherein each phase presented specific morphological characteristics and distribution patterns. High energy density (HE) input during the EBAM process leads to severe volatilization of Al elements and instability of coarse lamellar colonies, while a high forming temperature induces the degradation of lamellar colonies and the B2/ω_o solid-state phase transformation. The B2/ω_o phase transformation proceeds via spinodal decomposition expense of the α₂ phase and the γ phase, exhibiting the following orientation relationship: {0001}α₂//{111}γ//{110}B2//{$ 11 \overline{2} 0$}ω_o,<$ 11 \overline{2} 0$>α₂//<$1 \overline{1} 0$>γ//<$1 \overline{1} 1$>B2//<0001>ω_o. The α₂+γ→B2/ω_o solid-state phase transformation involves an intermediate phase transformation, where the B2 phase precipitates first, followed by the subsequent precipitation of the ω_o phase from the 6 equivalent crystal planes of {110} in the B2 phase. The phase transformation path is determined to be: α₂+γ→B2→ω_o, and the precipitation of the B2/ω_o phase is a diffusion-controlled process, with Nb, as a strong ω_o-stabilizing element, exhibits segregation.
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  Residual Stress Prediction of TA15 Alloy in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Based on Explainable Machine Learning

  ZENG Yuan, HE Jiajia

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 229-241. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.021

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  In laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), the rapid heating and cooling of powder often generates significant residual stress, leading to part deformation and cracking. To efficiently predict the residual stress in TA15 alloy, the work aims to propose an explainable machine learning approach. Firstly, a dataset of residual stress was generated through finite element simulation and Latin hypercube experimental design. Prediction models were constructed through XGBoost, support vector regression (SVR), and back‑propagation neural network (BPNN), with laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing as inputs and residual stress of TA15 alloy as output. The models were optimized via five‑fold cross‑validation and particle swarm optimization (PSO), and their performance was comprehensively evaluated through statistical metrics. Finally, Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) were applied to interpret the model and investigate the interactive effects of process parameters on residual stress. PSO effectively improved the prediction accuracy of XGBoost, BPNN, and SVR, increasing their coefficients of determination by 7.9%, 10.6%, and 26%, respectively. Among them, PSO‑XGBoost achieved the highest accuracy, with a coefficient of determination, mean absolute error, and mean squared error of 0.849, 4.1, and 35.5, respectively. Through explainable machine learning, hatch spacing was identified as the key variable affecting residual stress. The proposed approach provides an effective tool for the accurate prediction and process optimization of residual stress in TA15 alloy during LPBF, and can serve as a reference for the forming processes of other materials.
Advanced Manufacturing Technology and Equipment
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  Mechanism of Microcrystalline Evolution Behavior during Straightening Process Based on Voronoi Method with Different Process Parameters

  TONG Ze, HAN Xing, LI Chang, YU Anliang, WANG Ruhan

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 242-254. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.022

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  The work aims to explore the micrograin evolution mechanism of stainless steel billets during the straightening process, and thereby reveal the instantaneous evolution laws of temperature and stress under the influence of grain size during the straightening process of stainless steel billets with different process parameters. With a continuous casting unit in a steel plant as the research object, a three-dimensional finite element micro-grain model coupled with thermal-plastic multi-field was established through numerical simulation. The multi-grain structure of the steel billet was generated using the Voronoi method. Hardness data were obtained through nano-indentation experiments, and the variability coefficient of grain mechanical properties was calculated. Based on the characteristics of normal distribution, grains were divided into seven categories, which were randomly assigned to different material properties using Python. The stress and temperature distributions at the grain scale during the straightening process were simulated and analyzed. After introducing grain variability, the stress field exhibited local mutation characteristics highly consistent with the grain morphology; the temperature field showed local differences. When the reduction ratio increased from 5% to 15%, the peak stress increased from 273 MPa to around 450 MPa, and the temperature variation amplitude increased. When the roll speed increased from 0.4 rad/s to 0.8 rad/s, the peak stress decreased from 45.1 MPa to around 31.7 MPa, and the temperature variation amplitude decreased. When the initial temperature decreased from 1 250 K to 1 150 K, the peak stress increased from 139 MPa to around 234 MPa, while the impact on the temperature field was not significant. In conclusion, grain variability is the fundamental reason for the significant differences in the distribution of micro-stress and temperature fields during the straightening process of stainless steel billets. Among them, the reduction ratio and roll speed have significant impacts on the stress and temperature fields, respectively, while the impact of initial temperature is relatively limited.
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  Fundamental Behavior of Bubbles in the Single Discharge of Micro-EDM

  WU Zhaoyun, LI Guodong, YU Zuyuan, LIU Yu

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 255-264. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.023

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  The work aims to reveal the fundamental behavior of bubbles including generation, deformation and motion of bubbles under coupled thermal-flow physical fields through in-situ observation with a high-speed camera and multi-physical- field simulation methods, thus providing a theoretical basis for clarifying the debris-removal mechanism in micro-electrical discharge machining. A pair of needle electrodes with a diameter of 39 μm was used for the single discharge experiment, and a high-speed camera was employed to capture the bubble evolution process after discharge breakdown. Based on the Gaussian heat source model, combined with the gas-liquid phase change and ideal gas models, the bubble behavioral characteristics and multi-physical-field evolution in free-flow and gap flow fields were investigated. The inter-electrode gap environment under actual machining conditions was simulated, and the effects of bubbles on medium exchange in the entire machining environment were analyzed. The consistency between in-situ observation and simulation results indicated the reliability of the simulation model. With the release and cooling of discharge energy, bubbles exhibited obvious oscillatory (expansion and contraction) behaviors, which could periodically expel and suck in the machining fluid. Moreover, bubbles possessed a stronger capacity to expel and draw liquid within the narrow machining gap, effectively facilitating the renewal of machining fluid in the bottom gap. Bubble oscillation is a direct reflection of the conversion of discharge energy into the pressure field. The vibration induced by bubbles acts not only on the bottom gap but also over the entire machining gap. With remarkable effects and no external force required, it possesses the potential to serve as a self-debris-removal method.
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  Effect of Geometric Configurations of Inner Holes in Spin Coater Suction Cups on Substrate Adsorption-induced Deformation

  REN Chunhua, YAN Yutong, JI Hongwei, ZHOU Zhishun, WANG Na

  Journal of Netshape Forming Engineering. 2026, 18(8): 265-271. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-6457.2026.08.024

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  The work aims to investigate the effect of different geometric configurations of suction cup inner holes on substrate adsorption-induced deformation, thereby providing a theoretical basis for improving the forming accuracy of spin-coated films, optimizing the structural design of suction cups, and enhancing substrate adsorption stability. Three types of suction cups with the same inner-hole area, namely circular, square, and triangular configurations, were designed. Firstly, simulation calculations were performed using ANSYS Workbench software to simulate the in-plane deformation and out-of-plane displacement of the flexible substrate under different suction cup configurations. Subsequently, experimental investigations were carried out according to the three-dimensional Digital Image Correlation method (3D-DIC) to measure the strain and displacement field distributions of the flexible substrate during the adsorption process. The simulation results were consistent with the experimental results. After adsorption, larger strains of the substrate were mainly located at the edge regions and exhibited local non-uniform distribution characteristics similar to the morphology of the inner holes. The maximum first principal strain measured experimentally was close to 0.35. In terms of out-of-plane displacement, the values of the circular and square samples were close, whereas the out-of-plane displacement of the triangular sample was significantly lower, differing from that of the circular configuration by 7.9%. Different inner-hole geometric configurations have distinct effects on the substrate deformation behavior, among which the triangular configuration has the smallest influence on substrate adsorption-induced deformation. Therefore, designing suction cups with angular configurations can effectively improve the forming quality of spin-coated films.